Literary research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Literary research - Essay Example Women searches for ways and means to be appreciated in response to obvious inequality to the relevant worth of existence. The current research aims to expound, through the novel as the backdrop, the apparent unequal role of women compared to men during the historical frame, particularly in the 1930s. II. Status of Women’s Roles in Society in the 1930s A. Brief description of women’s roles The discourse written by Moran clearly illustrated the roles of women in society during the 1930s. This time period was depicted as the Great Depression, where â€Å"worldwide economic collapse following the stock market crash in 1929, in which unemployment remained high for an extended period and many businesses failed† (Investor Words, par. 1). Therefore, despite the spur of enlightenment of women towards the promotion of equal rights through the passage of laws depicted in the 19th Amendment in 1920s, the economic slowdown and financial crisis delayed the persistent and deter mined focus to fight for equal rights. As Moran averred, â€Å"the 1930s brought apple-sellers to city street corners and breadlines to urban charity houses. In a depressed economy, unemployment figures escalated and federal forces concentrated on bringing Americans back to work. Or, more accurately, bringing American men back to work. For society viewed working women as un-American money grubbers, stealing jobs from men who needed them to support their families† (par. 3). B. Perceived Inequality of Women’s Rights Prior to efforts to fight for equal rights, women were rarely given the opportunities to be properly educated, to vote, to work or be employed, among others. The fact was validated in the article entitled How Does the Representation of Women Change Between 1930-1960 On the Covers of Vogue? The article revealed that â€Å"the 1930s were a less vibrant decade for women, seeing the depression, which meant that all women were encouraged to return to their homes whilst men returned to jobs that were becoming scarce. All their roles and responsibilities were taken away from them; the economy could not deal with the growing number of men returning to work. Any women who married therefore gave up her right to work. This meant women had to spend more time at home doing the domestic jobs that would normally be considered the women’s ‘job’† (How Does, par. 5). The setting was typically exemplified by Curley’s wife, who is left spending most of her time hanging around with the workers; rather than having something productive and rewarding done according to her skills and abilities. C. Effects of Inequality of Women The study conducted by Amartya Sen on the Many Faces of Gender Inequality has attested to the continued existence of inequality felt by women the world over. The author categorized inequalities in gender according to seven types, to wit: (1) mortality inequality (â€Å"high mortality rates of women and a consequent preponderance of men in the total population† (Sen, par. 3); (2) natality inequality (the preference accorded to male children over female); (3) basic facility inequality (opportunities for education, cultivation of one’s talents, and participation in social functions); (4) special opportunity inequality (pursuing higher education and delving into more professional training);

Human Resource Management (HRM) in Cement Industry

Human Resource Management (HRM) in Cement Industry In this research we are trying our best to provide a framework to optimally utilize the valuable manpower resource. 1.10 CORE VALUES OF LUCKY CEMENT LIMITED (2009) At Lucky Cement we comprehend our core values to be the most significant factor leading to the existence and growth of this prestigious organization. How we accomplish our mission is as vital as the mission itself. Thus these values are not only on paper and pen but lounge deep in the heart of each individual working or associated with lucky cement. These values are reflected within the name of LUCKY itself: They are as follows. L = LEADERSHIP We dont just innovate industry practices we are defining the way business will be done in the future. We are pioneers. U = UNDERSTANDING Whereby we understand the demands of cement industry at a global level, parallel to the needs of people, associated with us in one way or the other. C = COMMITMENT One word that sums it all at Lucky Cement is the commitment of people to quality, relationship and most importantly our customers, who can never be disappointed at any cost. K = KONSTANT The most important element to balance any equation worldwide, at Lucky Cement we assign the value of Konstant with consistency of profits, as profits are required to sustain and grow any organization. They are in-turn the ultimate measure of efficiency. Y = YOU This attitude is a built-in character. At lucky cement we always maintain, You first, Me last approach, not only to please but to delight our employees, shareholders, customers, and all the other people who expect a result from Lucky Cement. Lucky Cement Ltd produces 25000 tons of cement per day with about 4000 employees working in this industry. This industry plays an important role in a sustained economic growth of the country. Sponsored by well known Yunus Brothers Group one of the largest export houses of Pakistan, Lucky Cement Limited currently has the capacity of producing 25,000 tons per day of dry process Cement. Lucky Cement came into existence in 1996 with a daily production capacity of 4,200 tons per day, currently is an omnipotent cement plant of Pakistan, and rated amongst the few best plants in Asia. With production facilities in Pezu (Production capacity: 13,000 Tons per day) as well as in Karachi (Production capacity: 12,000 tons per day), it has the tendency to become the hub of cement production in Asia (2009) Lucky Cement Limited is managed by the team of professionals, who are committed and dedicated to fulfill the mission and vision of the organization. Two production plants and five marketing offices are managed by the staff strength of then 1800 permanent employees throughout Pakistan. Production Sales Volume Performance: During the year under review, our Company achieved all time high volume of production and sales as enumerated in the table below: A comparative analysis of sales volume of the industry vis-à  -vis our Company is as The analysis of the market share of Our Company is as under: Financial Performance: A comparison of the key financial results of Our Company for the year ended June 30, 2008 with the same period last year is as under: Sales Performance During the year under review our company achieved an overall net sales revenue growth of 35.43% as compared to same period last year. Increase in revenue was attributed due to both increases in volume by 19.75% and net retention by 15.68%. Our Company continued to focus more on exports because of strong establishment of its brand in various export markets with higher retention margins. The domestic sales registered a negative growth of 6.38% because of higher exports made by the company which registered a growth of 116.29%. The ratio of sales revenue from exports was 54.43% whereas the local sales accounted for 45.57% during the financial year under review. The average combined net retention prices per ton improved by 13.10% over the comparative period last year. The prices in the international markets remained robust whereas the prices in the domestic market were under pressure, however in the last quarter the prices started increasing because of substantial increase in production c ost coupled with duties and taxes increased by the Government in federal budget Cost of Sales The major cost of production for cement manufacturing is the energy cost which constitutes 68.77% of the total cost of production. The energy cost is further divided into heat energy and power energy which constitutes 44.12% and 24.65% respectively of the total cost of production. As a matter of fact, the international prices of coal and oil have increased manifold during the year under review which have badly affected the cost of production both in Pakistan and abroad. The international prices of coal were approximately US$ 80 per ton by end of last year which has now increased to US$ 210 per ton by the year ended June 30, 2008. The prices of furnace oil have also increased tremendously which have also affected the cost of production. Except loose cement sales, the cement is packed either in paper bags or polypropylene bags. The increase in the prices of paper and the polypropylene in the international markets have also increased the cost of cement bags substantially. Similarly, the other cost factors have been increased either because of inflation, oil prices and depreciation of Pak Rupee for imported items. We are pleased to report that, our Company has taken various measures to mitigate the impact of increase in cost of production. Resultantly, the production cost per ton of our Company was only increased by 18.89%. Gross Profit Our Company achieved a gross profit rate of 25.73% for the year ended June 30, 2008 compared to 29.35% gross profit rate achieved same period last year. However, the gross profit in term of absolute value was increased by 18.71% because of the volumetric growth. Finance Costs The finance costs was reduced substantially from Rs.186 per ton last year to Rs.23 per ton during the year ended June 30, 2008 mainly because of interest rates hedging executed by the Company by entering into cross currency swaps agreements with the banks. These hedging transactions allowed the company to offset positive interest differential between KIBOR and LIBOR against the total financing cost of the Company. On the other hand, these swaps exposed the Company to currency risk for depreciation of Pak Rupee but at the same time ever increasing exports of the Company provided a natural hedge against these swaps transactions to mitigate the currency risk. As you know the economic and political scenario of the Country started deteriorating from November 2007 resultantly the Pak Rupee lost almost 12% of its value by June 30, 2008 as compared to June 30, 2007. Due to the depreciation of Pak Rupee our Company on the one hand incurred exchange loss of Rs.800.359 million on cross currency swap but on the other hand realized exchange gain of Rs.277.816 million on realization of GDR proceeds and export sales. Distribution Costs Distribution costs incurred by the Company were in-line with the increase in the volume of export sales. The percentage of distribution costs to net export sales was 12.51% for the year ended June 30, 2008 compared to 11.66% last year. Deferred Taxation During the year under review, the deferred tax provision amounted to Rs.456.53 million was reversed out of the total provision of Rs.1,515.54 million created in prior years due to higher ratio of local sales. Since the ratio of exports has increased which are covered under presumptive tax regime on which no deferred tax provision is required, therefore to that extent deferred tax was reversed. Contribution to the National Exchequer Our Company contributed a total amount of Rs.3.907 billion (2007: Rs.4.137 billion) to the Government Treasury in shape of taxes, levies, excise duty and sales tax. In addition to that our Company earned precious foreign exchange of approximate US$ 150 million during the year under review from exports besides bringing foreign investment of US$ 109 million against the issuance of GDRs in the international market. We briefly describe the problem at hand in the following paragraphs. 1.20 The Problem Domain This research work is concerned with adaptation of Optimization Techniques to utilize the manpower resources in a best possible way in cement industries with reference to Lucky Cement Ltd, Pezu, Pakistan. In this research we are trying our best to develop a framework how to utilize the manpower resources optimally in industrial sector, especially in cement industries. Literature review reveals that no exact attempt has been made by researchers, although much relative work has been done in one or in the other form. 1.30 Aims and Objectives The basic objectives of the research work can be summarized as below: To develop a questionnaire for finding decision-making parameters along with their weights To prepare a group of models that can depict the research work clearly To validate the Symbolic Model through test data To publish the results of the research work Nationally as well as Internationally Similarly, aims of this study are given as under: To prepare a standard knowledge acquisition tool for facts finding To develop a framework that might work just like a pedagogical device for students as well for researchers To pinpoint the importance of human resource utilization, so that govt. and other organization may know the importance of this valuable resource To prepare a baseline for further research in this field To minimize the cost of production in cement industries To apply the model in other industries 1.4 Scope This study is limited to the application of Optimization Techniques to Manpower resources in cement Industries with respect to Lucky Cement Ltd, Pakistan. However, it can be applied to all cement industries in Pakistan and in the rest of the world. Test data will be chosen from the different plants of Lucky Cement Ltd, Pakistan, which is the largest cement industry in the Asia. This research work is a multidisciplinary approach, which will combine the knowledge of experts of various fields of sciences, like, Management, Economics, Operations Research/Quantitative Techniques, Computer Science, Information System, Decision Theory and Statistics. 1.5 Justification of the Study The whole universe has been created by Almighty Allah for humanity, while human, as stated earlier are given the power of intelligence. So the first and foremost job of human being is to know their importance in the world and how to utilize this most valuable resource. Each and every thing in the universe has some value and importance whether we have knowledge about it or not yet but men have the capability to mobilize the remaining resources of the universe. Intelligence people can utilize these resources in a best possible way to fulfill their unlimited wants. Among all the inputs to any system i.e. Management, Money, Material, Men, Machinery, Mansion, Message etc the most important one is the Man who is responsible to operate and activate these resources economically, efficiently and effectively to achieve maximum utility. That is why when managerial staff makes rational decisions; right information at the right time and in right form is required to them. Hence research is required to find out ways and means of optimum utilization of the manpower resource in the industrial sector in general and in cement industries as special. Literature Review Manpower planning is truly an interdisciplinary activity rooted in such diverse fields as economics, psychology, law and public administration, industrial relations, computer science, and operations research. National manpower planning is the integral portion of macro-economic planning which attempts to achieve maximum utilization of human resources in terms of societal goals (Bib09). The closest reference to the expression optimal utilization of resources is value-for-money. According to this universally-recognized concept, all business processes are characterized by the use of a group of inputs (resources), which are transformed (activities) into outputs (results). The optimization of resources is based on three characteristics: economy, effectiveness and efficiency. The economy of resources consists of acquiring resources of the required quality, at a reasonable cost and in a timely manner. The effectiveness of resources is aimed at ensuring the adequacy of resources relative to business needs and their appropriate use. The efficiency of resources is measured by the attainment of an organizations business objectives (Bettm). Various optimization techniques for Integrated Renewable Energy Sources have been reported in the literature like: (i) Linear Programming (LP) (ii) Geometric Programming (GMP) (iii) Integer Programming (IP) (iv) Dynamic Programming (DP) (v) Stochastic Programming (St P) (vi) Quadratic Programming (QP) (vii) Separable Programming (Se P); (viii) Multi-objective Programming (MOP); (ix) Goal Programming (GP); (x) HOMER; (xi) VIPOR; and (xii) Hybrid 2, etc (A.K. Akella, M.P. Sharma and R.P. Saini, 2007). In the USA, for example, the Presidents Commission on National Goals issued the following list with its attendant implications for manpower needs: improved living standard, capital expansion with emphasis on transportation and utilities, urban development, social welfare, health coverage, education, transportation, national defense, research and development increases, international aid, space exploration, agriculture, manpower retraining, area redevelopment to promote full employment in regionally depressed regions, and development of natural resources (Bib09). Boxall, Purcell, and Wright distinguish among three major subfields of human resource management (HRM): micro HRM (MHRM), strategic HRM (SHRM), and international HRM (IHRM). Micro HRM covers the sub functions of HR policy and practice and consists of two main categories: one with managing individuals and small groups (e.g., recruitment, selection, induction, training and development, performance management, and remuneration) and the other with managing work organization and employee voice systems (including union-management relations). Strategic HRM covers the overall HR strategies adopted by business units and companies and tries to measure their impacts on performance (Mark L. Lengnick-Hall, Cynthia A. Lengnick-Hall, Leticia S. Andrade, Brian Drake, 2009). Broadly stated, manpower planning is the process to ensure that the right people are at the right place at the right time in sufficient numbers to efficiently accomplish anticipated tasks. Indeed, the field can be viewed as embracing information systems, management participation, and mathematical modeling largely represented by the disciplines of computer science, organization theory, behavioral science, and operations research (Bib09). Strategic human resource management (SHRM) focuses on aligning internally consistent human resource management (HRM) practices to build employees knowledge, skills, and abilities in an effort to support competitive strategies and achieve business objectives. SHRM is gaining increasing importance because strategic management, in a knowledge-based economy, emphasizes that employees are considered to be a primary component for attaining a competitive advantage. SHRM is gaining increasing importance because strategic management, in a knowledge-based economy, emphasizes that employees are considered to be a primary component for attaining a competitive advantage HRM practices create procedures that institutionalize the building of employees knowledge, skills, and abilities throughout the organization to promote valued, unique, and difficult to imitate organizational competencies which support competitive advantage (James D. Werbel, Samuel M. DeMarie, 2005). Project scheduling techniques under human resource constraints are referenced with the objective of minimizing project duration, and a proper human resource allocation algorithm standing on multi-project scheduling, with a heuristic procedure for searching out approximate optimal allocation, is adopted. A forward/backward scheduling technique is the primary allocation algorithm; it evaluates maximal and minimal labor power allocations for activities (al., 2006). Analysts develop strategy for allocating limited manpower resources based on command priorities, historical utilization data, and analysis of mission and functions. Analysts should have thorough knowledge of the Planning, Programming, Budgeting and Execution System (PPBES) documents or systems, the Structure and Manpower Allocation System (SAMAS), command plan, and TAADS for use in distributing and tracking approved allocations by budget program and organization (Man09). 2.1 Welcome to the global village MIS Theres no doubt that the world of work as we know it is rapidly changing. Even as little as fifteen years ago, the times were calmer than they are today. Back in 1973, with the first oil embargo, U.S. businesses began to realize the important effects that international forces had on profit and lost statements. The world was changing rapidly, with other countries making significant inroads into traditional U.S. markets. Unfortunately, U.S. business did not adapt to this changing environment as quickly or adeptly as they should have. The result was that U.S. Businesses lost out in the world markets and have had to fight much harder to get in. Only by the late 1980s done U.S businesses begin to get the message. But when they did, they aggressively began to improve production standards, focusing more on quality and preparing employees for the global village (The production and marketing of goods services worldwide). It is on this latter point that human resources will have the biggest effect (David A. Decenzo and Stephen P. Robbins, 2002). Computer and information Technology has converted the world into a globe and definitions of different terminologies have been changed such as: Market was defined as a place where two parties comes and make transaction, but due to Internet, no place is required for dealing making transactions. Every thing can be made at home i.e. purchasing, selling, bank transactions etc. T. Lucey (Lucey, 1991-1992) define MIS as The combination of human computer-based resources that results in the collection, storage, retrieval, communication use of data for the purpose of efficient management of operations for business planning (Lucey, 1991-1992). 2.2 Problems with MIS: In developing countries such as Pakistan, Different problems are faced during improvement in any field with respect to MIS. T. Lucy generalized all the problems in to six categories (Lucey, 1991-1992) Lack of management involvement with design of MIS; Narrow and /or inappropriate emphasis of the computer system; Undue concentration on low level data processing application particularly in accounting area Lack of knowledge management of computers; Poor appreciation by information specialists of managements true information requirements and of organizational problems; Lack of top management support; 2.3 Knowledge Requirements for MIS: As there are new concepts techniques are developed and also developing with respect to the solution of the problems. T. Lucey figure out the major areas of knowledge with respect to development operation of MIS (Lucey, 1991-1992). General Systems Concepts Management Functions Levels The Nature of Data Information Communications The Influence Of Information Technology Planning Decision Making Methods Techniques Control Principals Feedback Feed forward Organizational Structures and Processes Knowledge Requirements for the Development   Operation of MIS T. Lucey also describes the information system in outline as shown in the figure (Lucey, 1991-1992); Data Capture Data Data Processing File Storage Processed Data Data Communication Processed Data Users Users Processing/ Understanding Users Memory/Knowledge base I Information Actions/ Decisions/ Changes etc Information System in Outline Mehmet describes and evaluates seven methods of fore-casting requirements by industry and occupation: Econometric method Productivity method Trend projection method Employers survey method Method of forecasting specialized manpower requirements inter-area comparisons method Elasticity of factor substitutions method. (O., 1965) Ahamad and Blaug (Ahmad B. and Blaug M.) point out that manpower forecasting is still in its infancy yielding crude and often useless results. All too many models are still based on the woefully lacking fixed-coefficient approach pioneered by Fames utilizing productivity, education and participation ratios. The predominantly demand-oriented approach, the assumption that ratios are independent of technological growth, changes in industry output and education standards, and the failure to accommodate substitution effects have contributed to make the models suspect as serious undertakings (S, 1962). Broadly stated, manpower planning is the process to ensure that the right people are at the right place at the right time in sufficient numbers to efficiently accomplish anticipated tasks (E.W., 1967). Wlkstrom (W.D, 1971) identifies seven contributing factors: Rapidity of technological change. long lead time for training and development, tight labor market, demographic changes (e.g., lower birthrate during depression produced decrease in 35-44 age group), manpower coming to be viewed as critical corporate resource, government influence through programs and contracts, Manpower planning is becoming accepted as integral part of corporate planning. The last point only serves to attest to the complexity of manpower planning as an integral component of corporate planning a vast and ill-defined field in its own right. As Lorange (Lorange.P, October 30 November 2, 1974) comments in his survey: I am left with the uncomfortable feeling that somehow it is difficult to fit the bits and pieces together. There seems to be considerable lack of consensus in the literature when it comes to such central issues as the nature of planning systems, what constitutes relevant empirical areas of research, etc. Also, the common vocabulary seems to be surprisingly small and too often lacks adequate definitions. The research design frequently seems to be sloppy, particularly in neglecting to state assumptions when limit the universality of the sample. 2.4 Models: There are different models that are used for planning and decision making. T. Lucey Defined the model in simple words Model is any simplified abstract of reality. It may be physical object such as architectural scale model or it may be what is termed as symbolic model. These are representation of reality in numeric, algebraic, symbolic or graphical form. Business model are symbolic models which represent the organization operations by set of logically linked arithmetic algebraic statements. These models are used to enhance a manager analytical ability. T. Lucy broadly classified the models used for management purpose (Lucey, 1991-1992). Computer Based Management Models Simulation Models -Enable Different Conditions to be Explored Optimization Models -e.g. Linear Programming (Useful for deriving the best solution in certain structured Probabilistic Models -Incorporate Uncertainty by Allowing Multi-Point Estimates Deterministic Models -Assume Certainty by using single point Estimates decisions usually at Tactical operational Levels) (Useful for Exploring Risk Uncertainty and Complex Relationships Provide answers to What If? Questions can be useful at all levels) 2.5 Model Development: According to T. Lucey To develop a model which is realistic and has adequate predictive qualities is a collaborative effort between management and information specialists (Lucey, 1991-1992). He Key points are: The model should have a purpose and be objective oriented. Model building is an iterative, creative process with the aim of identifying those variable and relationships which must be included in the model so that it is capable of predicting overall system performance. It is not essential or indeed possible, to including all variables in a model. The variables in a model of greatest importance are those which govern, to a greater or less extent, the achievement of the specified objectives. These are the critical variables. The best model is the simplest one with the fewest variables that has adequate predictive qualities. To obtain this ideal there must be a thorough understanding of the system. The management who operate the system have this understanding and must be involved in the model building, otherwise over elaborate and overly mathematical models may result if the model building exercise is left to systems professionals. OR Systems Expertise Model Development System being Studied, including Management and Personnel, Physical Resources, Inputs and Outputs etc Model Objectives Management Know How Raw Data Model Validation and Testing Implementation Of Decisions Management Review of Model Results Processing of Model Management Model Results Decisions Optimization: James. O Brien defined optimization as It is a process of finding optimum value for one or more target variables, given certain constraints. Then one or more other variables are changed repeatedly, subject to the specified constraints, until the best value for the target variable are discovered (O Brien). Mer P. Martin define optimizing as The process of seeking the best possible choice (C Merk P. Martin, 1991) Purkiss (Purkiss) developed a linear programming (LP) model for hiring, firing, and redeployment of workers in the British Steel Industry. Assuming constant flow rates, his model minimized manning costs (over manning, under manning, and current level). Purkiss acknowledged the difficulty of determining cost coefficients and agreed that it is preferable to have hierarchically structured sub-objectives. Morgan (RW) proposes an LP model for the Royal Air Force in which he minimizes costs associated with recruitment (advertising and training) , redundancy, over manning, and pensions by controlling manning levels, promotions and redundancies subject to establishment and flow constraints. While it might seem to the uninitiated reader the LP models currently dominate the field, this is not necessarily the case. In many instances, aggregated simulation models precede more complex work. Another approach is entity simulation modeling in which individual records are stochastically aged during a simulated time horizon (Piskor, 1976). 2.7 Reasons for Using Models T. Lucey summarized the reasons into three main categories (Lucey, 1991-1992); The model is cheaper. Study and redesign. Specialized assistance. Research Methodology The plan of the study has the following stages: Problem Identification Development of a Questionnaire, Data Gathering Data Analysis Data Modeling Testing and Results Publication of Results Documentation Data Collection Analysis The expected results of this study may be: A data gathering tool in the form of a Questionnaire A group of models, like, Conceptual Model, Physical Model, Symbolic Model etc Results and Information for Decision Making Thesis and results Publications

The Economic Boom of the 1920s Essay -- essays research papers

The Economic Boom of the 1920s After the First World War America was a completely different country. The twenties was a very unusual time period in American History. The twenties were a time of fun and partying. There are many reasons why it was called the Roaring Twenties. Most of the American people were living a great life and were able to afford luxury items, even though this didn't apply to every one many believed that it was excellent and exciting a time of great hopes. In the twenties, industry took a very big step. It nearly doubled. Not only did industry grow so did science, fads, laws, beliefs, arts, social lives changed, sports and the various different news from around the globe. The twenties were a jam-packed decade. The work week had dropped from 60 to 48 hours. For the first time, the Americans considered play as important as work. The weekend family outing and vacation had become things workers expected it. Huge numbers of people had radios went to the movies and owned a car. Jazz was also introduced in the 20's At this time women were needed in society and men began to accept them. The car and train industry was the largest industry there was. The assembly line made mass production possible, and the industry boomed. "The Economic Boom". America was now a very powerful envy of many countries. America had High production and low unemployment Henry Ford's assembly line in Detroit was the largest one in the country. When Ford first started making cars, the only car he made was a black Model-T. Almost everybody in the United States had a car. Three-out-of-four families owned one or more cars. With the assembly line they made a lot more cars in one day than they did before. Instead of payin... ...iets had changed and they ate less starch and the farmers had a lot of left food over unable to sell. They would of sold hem abroad but there was no point for the reason that tariffs would be placed on them. The price for wheat had fallen. They would have to abandon their farmland and move to the rural areas. Over 600,000 farmers went bankrupt within 5 years. Person who disliked the boom- "It was also an era of pettiness, ignorance and poverty" I believe that the Economic boom in America was a good thing and that the good points out weighed the bad. Yet there were some very bad issues. The Technology, Industry, Music, Architecture, Arts and science advanced to a great extent and many things became available to every human. The old equipment was soon adapted, and is used today. The quality of living conditions slightly improved but America was still far from perfect.

Comparing British Welfare Systems with 2 Other Countries

A 2000 word comparative review of the ways different countries approach welfare, as discussed on the unit. The aim of this essay is to discuss and compare the British Welfare system with Germany and Sweden’s welfare systems. A welfare system is the structure of welfare provisions and services that provide a specific social need, but it is not only provided or organised solely by the government (Blakemore, 2001). It is a view that is rooted in individual exchanges between five organisations (State/Government, Market/Private Sector, Family/Kin networks, Local Communities and Civil Society).It reflects the history and cultures of different countries around the world (Haralambos, 2012). It is these providers that assume principal responsibilities of how welfare systems are organised and how they are worked for the welfare of its people in matters of health care, education, employment, and social security (Haralambos & Holborn, 2012b). The essay will focus on Adult Disability benef its and describe which of the main provider delivers disability benefits for the short-term and long term unemployed.The essay will also describe how they work and what patterns of provision is provided for the disabled. Then comparisons will be made on how the British welfare approaches on disability payments are provided and how they work, and I will examine the differences and similarities to each countries welfare system. The structure of the essay is based on a comparative method systematically designed for equivalences, similarities and shared common features. According to (Landman, 2004) the selection process involves two main types of research designs.Comparing different results across similar countries is known as ‘most similar systems’ and comparing similar outcomes across different countries known as ‘most different systems’. Either way using similarities and differences of different countries is meant to uncover what is common to each country (L andman, 2004, p28). The methodology approach is to select a ‘small –N’ (a few countries) and use the ‘trine’ method of involving three countries (Lewis, 2012). The method identified common features of the British welfare state with that of Germany and Sweden.Classification is a way of grouping common features which are mutual with other countries (Lewis, 2012). All 3 countries have a welfare system for those who have full or permanent disabilities. In order for things to be comparable they have to share certain features like welfare systems and have common features, called equivalences. Most countries have common features such as institutions, policies and services without these common features a comparison cannot be made. The essay will draw on an implicit approach rather than explicit because it is the British welfare system that comparisons are being made.All countries provide certain benefits for those who have full and permanent disabilities but they differ in the types of benefits they provide. Studies reviewed showed that some countries have changed part or the entire financial burden of short-term benefits from governments onto employers and private organisations. Disability benefits are provided by the state or local governments by all three countries however, in the UK only short term benefits are provided but in Germany and Sweden both short term and time limited benefits are provided for the disabled (Mitra, 2009). In the United Kingdom, the disability employment rate has been at 40%† (Huang et al, 2009, p. 46). The Liberal state of the United Kingdom faced major crisis of social and economic modernisation at the end of the Second World War. It was David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill who led the drive for what became the National Insurance Act of 1911, which brought in disability insurance. In fact, the reconstruction of welfare in the UK involved a set of relationship between the state, the market and th e family (Clarke & Logan, 1993).The Disability and Carers Service, which is part of the Department of Work & Pension (DWP) has the responsibility of providing benefits for people on benefits such as DLA. DLA is a tax-free benefit to help with extra costs you may have because your’re disabled, this is given to all claimants whether they are working or not (Directgov). Some people who make a claim for DLA may be asked to have a medical examination. Working tax credits was introduced in 2003 along with disability element to help people stay in work or to return to work (Mitra, 2009).Then the 2005 Disability Discrimination Act came into force (Haralambos & Holborn, 2009). (Burchardt, 2000) cited that according to the European Commission (1998), people with disabilities have low levels of participation in society and the employment rate for people with disabilities is 20-30% lower than people without disabilities (Huang, 2009). From 2013 Disability Living Allowance for disabled pe ople aged 16 to 64 will be replaced by a new Personal Independence Payment programme (Directgov).This is a non-means tested, tax free benefit. The DWP is to run a pilot scheme to help assist and reintroduce claimants back into the job market (Mitra, 2009), this will lead to employers paying short term benefits rather than the state. In Sweden it is the Local government responsibility for welfare services. It was from the 13th century that the first local legislation was seen as the responsibility of the local parish to take care of the poor (Bergmark & Minas, 2006, p. 15).The Swedish health system for people with disabilities are that national policy is plainly maintained by legislation and political agreement (Lilja et al, 2003). Swedish disability systems are organised in 3 hierarchical levels; the state, the county councils and the local authorities. However, this responsibility has expired over time and the national government decided to place a great deal of the responsibility for public services on the local authorities (Lilja et al, 2003). In Sweden policies relating to people with disabilities is provided through integration, full contribution and equality.Ministry of Health and social affairs (2000) reported the Swedish parliament had adopted a national policy for individuals with disabilities; they should have the same rights and obligations as everyone and be offered equal resources no matter where they lived (Lilja et al, 2003). While central government is to blame of legislation, general designing and distribution similarly as social insurance, authorities (municipalities) are answerable for social services, and regional government (county councils) for health care.Municipal social services additionally the} health and medical services of county councils are ruled by framework legislation that specifies the framework and objectives of activities however that also affords municipalities and county councils ample chance to interpret the law and form their activities in line with their own pointers People with disabilities will apply for municipal grants to change their homes.Actions like housing with special services for adults, or daily activities for those that are inactive and not enrolled in education are regulated by the Act regarding Support and repair for Persons with sure purposeful Impairments. County councils and municipalities are answerable for that health care help and is provided within the type of rehabilitation and habilitation. however there has been ongoing discussion regarding shifting a number of the price from state as a full to the individual user within the type of increasing the little fees some county councils and native authorities need and presumably reducing subsidies.While central government is in charge of legislation, general planning and distribution as well as social insurance, local authorities (municipalities) are responsible for social services, and regional government (county councils) for health care. Municipal social services and the health and medical services of county councils are governed by framework legislation which specifies the framework and objectives of activities but which also affords municipalities and county councils ample opportunity to interpret the law and shape their activities according to their own guidelines (Olney & Lyle, 2011).More than 70 organisations represent specific disability groups with 2,000 local associations. These organisations receive financial backing from the state, county councils and local authorities (Bahle, 2003). High spending on disability and unemployment helps to prevent poverty and social exclusion in these groups. The local authorities and county councils together have the basic responsibility for ensuring that people with disabilities are guaranteed good health and economic and social stability, and also for enabling the individual to lead an independent life.People with disabilities can apply for municipal grants to modify their homes. Actions such as housing with special services for adults, or daily activities for those who are inactive and not enrolled in education are regulated by the Act Concerning Support and Service for Persons with Certain Functional Impairments. County councils and municipalities are responsible for that health care assistance and is provided in the form of rehabilitation and habilitation.But there has been ongoing discussion about shifting some of the cost from state as a whole to the individual user in the form of increasing the small fees some county councils and local authorities require and possibly reducing subsidies. Country by Country The form of the welfare state that emerged was The ‘social state' of Germany began in the late 19th century when Bismarck was concerned the political left would oppose his place in power, he decided to introduce welfare provision into Germany to gain support from the left (Esping-Anderson, 1998).Bismarck's basic idea was th at people who were in work would pay into a scheme and this money would be distributed back to the poor (Ginsburg, 1993), he introduced the world's first State Social Insurance Scheme in 1883 (Bryson, 1992). The welfare system was about the basic needs of the state, with individuals helping themselves, the state would only intervene if it was absolutely necessary (Ginsburg, 1993). It was upon this base that Germany placed the future of welfare provision. Between 1950 and 1970 Germany's welfare system started to take shape.Interested in individual well being, the Christian, Catholic and Trade Unionists sections of the Government were introducing policies to increase job security (George, 1996). The neo- liberal ideas of strong market economy, individualism and democratic culture paired with the egalitarian approach to policy saw very distinctive priorities forming, of liberalism, conservative. Another example of how a corporatist system works in practice can be seen in the way a new insurance scheme for long term care was introduced in Germany in the mid-1990s.Time limited benefits was introduced in disability systems by the government via social insurance or social assistance programs (Mitra, 2009). The German welfare system is comprehensive and generous Social insurance lies at the heart of German social welfare. The disabled are also served by a broad range of medical and vocational programs designed to provide them with humane living conditions. Statutory social insurance programs are responsible for meeting the various needs of their members who become disabled.In addition, government agencies at the federal, Land, and local levels seek to provide employment and help with special housing and transportation provisions. Employment of the disabled is furthered by federal legislation that requires firms employing more than fifteen persons to reserve 6 percent of positions for the disabled or to make annual compensatory payments My hypothesis is, Germany and Sw eden disability programmes have a strong history with non-profit organisations that help support provisions for the disabled stronger than Britain’s profit based organizations.But on the other hand a result of social policies that are too strongly oriented towards the past on the one hand and sustainable conservative family patterns on the other, very little importance is attached to disability social policy contexts. CONCLUSION There is no longer a distinction between Germany’s contribution-based and Britain’s tax-based funding of welfare state programs, but in practice these two models have come together, as most social-insurance schemes are funded by a mixture of employer/employee contributions and grants from general state incomes.Contribution-based schemes, which are funded and administered independent of the government budget and in which members have vested benefits, have in history tended to be more generous and less prone to cutbacks than tax-funded sch emes, which the state can cut back when tax revenues are limited or an anti welfare state political party comes to power. It is, however, important to stress that there are considerable differences between the lives of disabled people and the type of welfare benefits across the European welfare system.The two decisive but interconnected differences consist of the amount to which the public sector takes the individual or the family as its point of departure and the degree to which disabilities is seen as a stage of life in its own right or how each individual is assessed. Welfare pluralism suggests that all welfare provisions will be provided by all the five providers in all countries in the future and less state/public responsibility. ?REFERENCES Bahle, T. (2003) ‘The changing institutionalization of social services in England and Wales, France and Germany: is the welfare state on the retreat? , Journal of European Social Policy, 13(5), pp. 5-20 Bergmark, A. and Minas, R. â₠¬ËœRescaling Social Welfare Policies in Sweden’ Institute for Future Studies [Online]. Available at: http://www. euro. centre. org/rescalingDocuments/files/Sweden. pdf (Accessed: 15 March 2012) Bode, I. 2006) ‘Disorganised welfare mixes: voluntary agencies and new governance regimes in Western Europe’, Journal of European Social Policy, 16(4), pp. 346-359 Clarke, J. , & Cochrane, A. (1993) Comparing Welfare States: Britain in International Context, London, Sage Etherington, D. & Ingold, J. (2012) ‘Welfare to work and the inclusive labour market: a comparative study of activation policies for disability and long-tern sickness benefit claimants in the UK and Denmark’, Journal of European Social Policy, 22(1) pp. 0-44 Haralambos & Holborn (2009) (7th edn) Sociology Themes and Perspectives, London, HarperCollinsPublishers Limited Huang, J. , Guo, B. , & Bricout, J. (2009) ‘From Concentration to Dispersion: The Shift in Policy Approach to Disability Employment’, Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 20(1) pp. 46-54 Landman, T. (2004) Isssues and Methods in Comparative Politics: an introduction. 3rd edn. Dawsonera [Online] Available at: http://www. dawsonera. com/depp/reader/protected/external/AbstractView/S9780203929780/S0. 78/0Lilja, M, Mansson, I, Jahlenius, L. , & Sacco-Peterson, M. (2003) ‘Disability Policy in Sweden: Policies Concerning Assistive Technology and Home Modification Services’, Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 14(3)pp. 130-135 Mitra, S. (2009) ‘Temporary and Partial Disability Programs in Nine Countries’, Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 20 (1) pp. 14-27 Olney, M. F. & Lyle, C. (2011) ‘The Benefits Trap: Barriers to Employment Experienced by SSA Beneficiaries’, Rehabilitation Counceling Bulletin, 54(4), pp. 197-209

Rene Descates and John Locke Essay

John Locke were both philosophers of the 17th century. Descartes was a rationalist in the way that he thought and wrote about. A rationalist used reasoning to gain knowledge. John Locke on the other hand, was an empiricist in the way he philosophized and taught. An empiricist used senses and experiences. These philosophers, being a rationalist and empiricist, were very different in the way they saw life and knowledge, but they had some similarities as well in the way that they thought. Being of two different groups of philosophers, the rationalists and empiricists, John Locke and Rene Descartes were very different in the beliefs they had; however, as different as they may be there were some similarities that were shared by both of these seventeenth century philosophers. First and most importantly, the biggest similarity that they shared was the fact that they were not skeptics. In other words, they both believed knowledge can be gained by humans. In addition, both of them separated the mind and the body to be two different things or concepts of a living being. For Descartes, mind was for thinking and reasoning and body was just matter or substance. For Locke mind was used for reflection or self-examination of oneself and the body was used for getting knowledge through its senses. For example, Locke says â€Å"it is past doubt that men have in their minds several ideas. † This is an example of how he says and believes the mind works in a human being and gives those ideas which are ultimately reflections. Descartes when he begins to write first states that he is going to doubt everything and then search for the truth. He first establishes himself. He writes â€Å"†¦I could imagine I had no body, and that there was no world nor or any place that I occupied, but that I could not imagine for a moment that I did not exist. † This is where he starts to identify his self. He goes on to say the very well-known phrase â€Å"I think therefore I am. † This is the first truth he presents. He pretty much says that he exists. Then he goes on to identify other truths that he finds. He ultimately finds the biggest truth and says that there is a God that exists. He says the God is almighty, all knowing and perfect in every way. Upon stating the existence of God he says that everything we and do are true. In his writing, he states this when he says â€Å"†¦that all those things which we conceived very clearly and very distinctly are true, is known to be true only because God exists†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and he goes on to say that this is true because everything we have comes from God and that he cannot be wrong. The reason as to why Descartes writes this is to get people to understand one thing. That people are a thinking substance and that because we are thinking we have the ability to reason. He says that â€Å"†¦we should never allow ourselves to be convinced except on the evidence of our reason. † This is how Descartes views self; it is a living substance that has the ability to reason and think and therefore it should. John Locke’s first words on his paper Of Ideas in general, and their Original is â€Å"Idea is the object of thinking. † This statement is a perfect way to summarize what Locke believes. Locke in his writing writes about how all ideas then come from experience. He then goes on to describe that there are two ways of achieving experience. One of them is reflection or self-examination and the other is through your senses. Locke uses these two concepts of experience to ultimately describe what he feels self is. He understands self not to be a reasoning body, but a blank paper. In other words, people are not born knowing anything. They acquire knowledge through the experiences that they go through in life. For example, a person when born does not know that fire is hot, but if he tries to touch it and gets burned he will have learned that it is hot. This is one example of how Locke sees people molding themselves to be who they are. He says â€Å"Men are differently furnished with these, according to the different objects they converse with. † This essentially summarizes the meaning of the fire example. In addition, he writes â€Å"These, when we have taken a full survey of them, and their several modes, combinations, and relations†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He implies that our minds start to take these experiences and make them into ideas and then combine ideas to make bigger ideas and so on. All in all, John Locke regards the self to be born and be like a blank piece of paper and when grown he expects it to be a byproduct of its experiences. In fine, both of these writers had similarities even though they were part of two very different groups of philosophers. They had similarities such as, the fact that they were skeptics and that they separated the mind and body and these were the places where they found the most disagreement. In other words, they both believed knowledge was attainable but disagreed how and they both believed mind and body were different, but had different duties for them. Both these writers, even though they are very different, have made huge impacts in the field of philosophy and in life in general.

Research Paper on Durkheim

Research Paper on Durkheim Emile Durkheim was to become one of the most influential writers in regard to the subject of suicide and its link to the state of our modern society. For centuries before his writing, suicide was regarded as a moral and psychological problem that was caused by differences inherent to the individual. Durkheim’s work was the first to imply that the study of suicide could not be based on individuals and it was crucial to create a sociological approach regarding the external causes of society itself. His work, although receiving a great deal of criticism, has provoked a change in such studies ever since, with many sociologists using an interpretation of Durkheim’s theories as the basis of their own studies. In order to display that the crisis in our society was caused by factors external to the individuals, Durkheim systematically analysed each alternative possibility, all of which he eventually ruled out as a possible cause. He defined these alternatives as â€Å"organic-psychic dispositions and the nature of the physical environment† (Durkheim,E 1989). In studying the former of these, Durkheim wished to determine whether there existed an inclination among certain individuals towards suicide and he began by analysing the components of insanity. It was assumed by a number of theorists known as alienists that every suicide was committed by a person inflicted by insanity and that, according to Bourdin, suicide is simply a disease and special form of insanity. (Durkheim,E 1989) Durkheim continues this line of thought in order to discover what exactly is meant by such an insanity of suicide. He proposes that if suicide were to be a type of insanity then it would therefore be known as a ‘monomania’; a delirium of localised nature. It was believed that this monomania would be provoked by a violent emotional disturbance, which appears to link with the idea that suicides are usually â€Å"influenced by some abnormal passion† (Durkheim, E 1989). However, Durkheim finds fault with this theory, as he is unsatisfied of proof of existence of monomanias. He claims that although it cannot be proved that they do not exist, any type of observations that they do exist has never conclusively shown it. Furthermore, it has long since been believed that the idea of completely separate mental functions is false and that they are so completely interdependent that insanity, upon attacking one area, would without doubt affect every aspect of mental behaviour. It therefore appears that no suicidal monomania can exist and suicide cannot be â€Å"a distinct form of insanity†. Durkheim then continues to inspect the possibility that, although suicide is not a specific form of insanity, it may be a recurring event connected with all insanities. In order to do this four categories of suicide were created including maniacal, melancholy, obsessive and impulsive suicide. The first of these describes suicide linked to sudden hallucinations, demonstrated by suicide attempts which cannot be recalled by the person in the case of a survival and when the person no longer wishes to cause harm to themselves immediately after the attempt. The second form is associated with a severely depressive state resulting in despair of life, while the third varies in that it is entirely unmotivated but just as dominant as a suicide of melancholy reasons. Finally, impulsive suicide is equally as unmotivated; however, it does not consume the person’s mind. Instead it is characterised by a sudden and forceful urge. These definitions of suicide show that a number of different typ es exist, some of which result from hallucinations, and others, which are the product of real perceptions. This further shows that not all types of suicide can be linked to insanity that can therefore not be identified as a cause of suicide. Durkheim also shows that if mental disorders were the sole cause of suicide, then social conditions should have no effect on statistics. He displays that between 1858 and 1891 there were, without exception, more women than men in insane asylums. Therefore, if insanity was the cause of suicide, more women should commit suicide than men. This is clearly shown to be far from fact as â€Å"suicide is a largely male phenomenon†. (Durkheim, E 1989) Durkheim continues this point to show that, in fact, the correlation between insanity and suicide in different social conditions such as religions and age is actually non-existent and locations with the highest rates of insanity often have the lowest rates of suicide. Durkheim then examines alcoholism as a possible cause as it is a condition linked to many other social and moral problems. However, this seems unlikely, as alcoholism is most common among the lower classes where suicide is connected to the opposite. Also, using the example of France, it appears that not only alcoholism but also all diseases and crimes connected to it are of completely different locations on the country’s map to those of suicides. This therefore concludes, for Durkheim, â€Å"no psychopathic state bears an indisputable relation to suicide†. (Durkheim, E 1989) The next stage in Durkheim’s analysis regards those psychological states considered to be normal rather than those previously discussed. He begins with the concept of race for which he reluctantly uses the definition of Morselli in order to allow analysis of the concept, despite his warning of the difficulty of sociologically defining race. The four groups defined by Morselli were placed in descending order according to the number of suicides per group. Therefore the Germanic people were discovered to have the highest suicide rate, and then the Celto-Romans and the Slavs were identified to have the lowest rate (The fourth group were regarded as too small to assess). (Durkheim, E 1989) Despite this, it was noted that great differences actually existed within these categories and all people among them were not of uniform tendency towards suicide. It was then thought that perhaps the idea of nationality would be a more suitable category than that of race. However, in order to acc urately study this it is crucial to study an environment of mixed ethnic origins so that the cause may not simply be a distinct nature of a specific civilisation. This displayed that in many countries, the suicide rate was greater when there was a lower German influence, despite the fact that they were the nationality thought most likely to commit suicide. It therefore appears that a certain nationality such as the Germans does not commit suicide due to something inherent in their ‘race’ but rather as a result of the environment in which they live. It must also be considered that suicide could be inherited among families. Records show that suicides tend to recur in generations of the one family in alarming numbers. However, Durkheim points out that investigations of such situations have usually involved families touched by insanity as so it may therefore be due to the transmission of insanity, of which suicide is a â€Å"frequent but accidental symptom† rather than suicide itself. (Durkheim, E 1989). Also, suicides among families are often the result of the inclination towards reproducing the act of a loved one, demonstrated by the identical method frequently applied among families and groups. Finally, Durkheim states that if suicide were hereditary, this would not account for the difference in suicide rates between opposite sexes. Another factor which is often claimed to provoke suicide is what Durkheim called the â€Å"cosmos factors† which are alterations in climate and season. The suggestion of climate can immediately be ruled out as it can be clearly shown from the distribution of suicides across the globe, that high suicide rates can occur in all climates and countries such as Italy, who’s climate has not altered, though they have witnessed great changes in their suicide rates. Durkheim does, however, seems to accept that attributing suicide rates to changes in season should be given some credit. Despite common assumptions, suicides are found by statistics to be more common among the warmer months of March to August, without exception in any country. (Durkheim, E 1989) Morselli’s studies showed that, even more specifically, more suicides where found to occur in the summer. However, the conclusions drawn from this data varied among theorists. Morselli concluded that temperature was therefore positively correlated to suicide and this was due to greater levels of energy. Durkheim disputes this, reasoning that the different examples of suicide show that it can result from situations opposite to those of increased energy. He alternatively believed that the correlation is due to increase in daylight in the summer. More suicides are actually known to be committed in the daylight which, according to Durkheim, is because â€Å"this is the time of most active existence,†¦, when social life is most intense† (Durkheim, E 1989). Also, the variation in suicide rates throughout the year are more pronounced in rural areas than urban which Durkheim attributes to the higher alternations in levels of production, and therefore human relations, in rural areas, which are obviously much higher in summer months. Therefore, although Durkheim is accepting a cosmic factor as a possible cause for suicide, it is because he links this cause to societal changes and collective life. The final factor left for Durkheim to assess is that of imitation. Imitation, by definition, is the transfer of an act from one person to another without the requirement for any form of bond between the persons involved. It can therefore only be an individual act which would, if connected to the suicide rate, imply a pathological cause of suicide rather than societal. Durkheim rejects this idea, however, claiming that if imitation or contagion were to be the cause of suicide, there would be central geographical points, which had the highest suicide rates, and suicides would gradually diminish in a concentric pattern around them. However, in studying the statistics, this can clearly be shown to be incorrect, as many areas of low suicide rates can exist next to areas of the highest rates. Durkheim was therefore able to conclude that the cause of suicide was not inherent to the individual and must therefore be caused by the external, in other words, the society. Durkheim believed that society affected the individual in two ways; firstly by integration and creating â€Å"purposes and ideals† and secondly by â€Å"moderating their desires and aspirations† which had the potential to be infinite. Drawing from this, he divided suicide into a number of social categories. Firstly, Egoistic suicide was the result of insufficient integration into society and therefore the pursuit of individualism. Durkheim regarded religion as a major factor in this situation. Catholicism provides its society with a strict and invariable set of traditions that are set in place by a â€Å"hierarchical system of authority†. Durkheim associates this strict religion with the low suicide rate that exists among Catholics. He contrasts this with the protestant religion that is open to far greater interpretation and promotes a greater individual freedom. This highlights the basis of egoism, as the individual is without satisfactory inclusion into collective life. The suicide rate of Protestants is much higher which Durkheim believes is the result of this. The exception to this is in England; however, the protestant church here is the only to have a hierarchy and is therefore most similar to Catholicism. Furthermore, the Jewish society are subject to even stricter traditi onal beliefs which is reflected in their even lower suicide rates. The taste of individualism and â€Å"free enquiry† created by Protestantism is necessarily linked with the desire for learning and knowledge as â€Å"knowledge is free thoughts only means of achieving its purposes†. (Durkheim, E 1989). Durkheim believes that Protestants should therefore have a higher desire to learn and that this desire should correlate with the suicide rate. Protestants in general are better educated than Catholics. To further emphasise this, Protestant countries can be compared with each other which shows that the higher the quality of education (based on low illiteracy rates), the higher the suicide rate. This also correlates with the fact of men committing more suicides than women, as, worldwide; women are generally less educated than men. Durkheim also believes that the moderating effects upon suicide of consistency and collective practices can also be related to the family. It was believed by many that marriage and family actually increase the inclination to suicide. However, this opinion is found to be based on poor information. If the statistics only include those of marrying age and categorise these people into specific age group, it can then be seen that marriage actually decreases suicide attempts. This can be due to a number of factors. Firstly, the domestic environment and the collectivity of family life may reduce the tendency to suicide. Also, those who do not get married may be more likely to commit suicide due to their position in society through lack of marriage. It cannot, however, be described as something which is inherent in the type of people to marry as the act of marriage is clearly open to everyone and although the insane are perhaps excluded, they do not account for a big enough proportion to alt er the statistics. Finally, with regard to egoistic suicide, Durkheim links suicide rates to political struggle and upheaval. Despite political upheaval often being regarded as a cause of rising suicide rates, Durkheim notes that it may, in fact have the opposite effect and that the statistics will show this. To rule out the possibility that this may be caused simply to poor administration of deaths during wartime, Durkheim claims that this would only apply to men who die while partaking in the army. However, this does not account for the reduction in suicides of women that can be noted in many incidents. The conclusion therefore drawn from this is therefore that the suicide rate reduces in times of social or political upheaval as action is concentrated â€Å"towards a single end† creating a â€Å"stronger of integration of society† (Taylor, S 1989) Durkheim therefore provided a strong argument of how â€Å"suicide varies inversely with the degree of social integration of the social grou ps of which the individual forms part† (Taylor, S 1989. Durkheim then progresses to his second category, known as altruistic suicide, which he claims is the result of excessive social integration†. If a man is to become extremely involved with the ‘collective society’, he is likely to forget the importance of the self and will value his life very little in comparison to the common good of society. Durkheim uses many examples to show the existence of this in ancient societies, such as wives and servants feeling compelled to commit suicide on the death of their husbands and masters. Furthermore, in ancient Greece, men would rather end their own lives that live in illness or old age and this act of suicide would actually be rewarded by their society by a funeral of great honour. (Durkheim, E, 1989) This therefore symbolises the effects of society and its values on the suicides of its people. The extent of this is demonstrated by the fact that none of these suicides are obligatory but any alternative option would rarely be chosen, showing the sheer subordination of the individual to society. These traditional cultures can, however, be rarely displayed in our contemporary society. Durkheim believes that they now take a different form that is encapsulated in our armies. There can be a number of reasons attributed to the high suicide rates among the army. It would be often said that it relates back to marriage and the high rates of unmarried men in the army account or this. However, if the suicide rates of unmarried men are compared with those of the army, it can be seen that the rates of the army are still much higher and further explanation is therefore required. Durkheim carefully studied all available statistics to show that the men most likely to commit suicide in the army were those best suited to its lifestyle and requirements and those who are most keen to partake. Durkheim therefore concludes that the cause can relate only to the lack of value that a trained soldier is required to place on his own life, therefore leading him to obey any command without self-conside ration. Theorists such as Esquirol, however, rejected this claim, maintaining that deaths of such honour and nobility should not be considered as suicide. Durkheim responds that this is a problematic view, which undermines the similarity between many forms of suicide, and he concludes, â€Å"Every sort of suicide is merely the exaggerated or deflected form of a value†. (Lukes, S, 1967) Finally, anomic suicide is, for Durkheim, the form most associated with modern society. Rather than involving a lack of integration into society, it refers to a lack of constraint to an individual’s activity. Durkheim claims that, in times of economic crisis, both of depression and prosperity and depression, the suicide rate will generally rise. His conclusion from this is that, as the cause cannot be either poverty or wealth as both have the similar effect, it must be the actual fluctuation of situation. The result of this is that â€Å"norms that had previously regulated their (people of the society) conduct are no longer appropriate to their changed conditions of life†. (Taylor, S 1989) This condition can either be ‘acute’, and cause only small fluctuations, or it can be ‘chronic’, which, in Durkheim’s opinion, is the state of our modern society. This contemporary position results in a severe lack of regulation and individuals begin t o compete against each other, as the collective life is lost. A development of hostility occurs, especially between â€Å"labour and capital† and the increasingly specialised division of labour results in a further decrease of social solidarity. (Durkheim, 1984) Thus, these individuals, in this individualist struggle, are in constant need to gain more from life and they develop insatiable desires. The constant state of dissatisfaction, which is the consequence of this, would be the obvious creator of tendencies towards suicide. It is therefore clear that Durkheim provided a careful and systematic account of what he believed to be a social crisis rather than a psychological one. His study has provided future sociologists with a new perspective on such issues that has shaped their own investigation. However, despite his importance, Durkheim and his study of suicide and society has not been without criticism. Firstly, Durkheim’s study is based largely on facts represented by the actual Suicide Rates. However, the validity of these rates is highly questionable. As the suicide rates are themselves produced by individuals, they rely heavily on personal judgement rather than fact. Much of this judgement is also based on the opinions of people connected to the event such as family who may wish to alter facts in order to retain dignity of their loved one or themselves. Also, in economic terms, families may wish to avoid suicide verdicts for insurance reasons. Furthermore, Durkheim placed great emphasis on the importance of religious groups in the variations in the suicide rate. However, his reasoning may not be entirely accurate as Catholics, for example, may wish to disguise suicides in order to retain the respect of their religion. Durkheim’s theory was also greatly based on the influence of social goals. He did not however, consider that different types of goals may exist and that many of these may be â€Å"non-integrative† (Lukes, S, 1967). Therefore, he failed to realise that the absence of social goals that he described, such as anomie, may in itself be a form of goal of norm. Also, Durkheim fails to account for intentionality or why certain people commit suicide. His devotion to considering official suicide rates meant that the intentionality could not be considered as no direct evidence could be available to determine this after the event. Durkheim claimed that suicides were completely random and that the social reasons affected everyone with the same force and those who ended their lives were simply hit at their weak points. (Taylor, S 1989) However, this very claim suggests that some level of psychological difference must exist between individuals for this to have such an effect. It can therefore be determined that, despite the importance of Durkheim’s work, it has a great number of faults and criticisms. He carefully rules out what seems to be any possibility of suicide being the product of anything non-social, but the conclusions which he reaches appear to be incomplete and somewhat contradictory. Therefore, although he has clearly demonstrated that suicide is significantly affected by society, and its norms and values, there must be a pathological element that determines the precise individuals that are the victims of such effects. It is consequently obvious why many who have studied similar issues since, accept many of Durkheim’s theories but generally reject his dismissal of individual differences and his emphasis of social currents.

Samuel Beckett Play Essay Example

Samuel Beckett Play Essay Example The Play Not I by Samuel Beckett Essay Example The Play Not I by Samuel Beckett Essay Example The play we are going to speak about in this essay is called Not I, written in 1972. Its author Samuel Beckett has described this play as the action of the moving mouth in the darkness of the rest of the stage. This play is concerned being the part of the author’s art that is connected with the late period of his activity. Moreover, if analyzing Krapp’s Last Tape, we can notice that most of Beckett’s works of the late period of activity are connected with the researching of memory. Mostly these memories are shown through the prism of the past events that are transmitted into the present time in silence and darkness. This could be done to achieve certain level of concentration. Such plays also concern the topic of self-confidence and place in life. The plot of the play usually contains the voice that comes from the outside or through the comments in the silence (Not I). Not I is a short dramatic monologue, and its premiere took place at the â€Å"Samuel Beckett Festival† by the Repertory Theater in New York. First time this play was directed by Alan Schneider. The action of the Not I takes place in a specific place that is lighted only by a single light. It is important to mention that this light concentrates on the mouth of the actress on almost eight feet above the stage. Other elements of the play are presented in the dark space of stage. One could notice the figure of the Auditor, who makes four attempts of helpless compassion. This action appears in times, when Mouth keeps silence and listens to the voice from the outside. Mouth tells us a story presented by the huge amount of different sentences in a rather fast pace. Through this story we find the information about the woman of about seventy years old who was left by her parents after birth. That is the reason of the absence of love and understanding in her life. Moreover, most of her life experience has mechanical character. Also all this situations, happened in her early childhood, have caused huge traumatic experience as the final result. This woman has been virtually mute from the early years of her life. Sometimes the occasional progress happens. One of such situations is demonstrated by Beckett to illustrate the main sense of the play. Her silent hero shows us the importance of the thought itself. It might be significant even without becoming the idea of the entire society and hearing on every corner. Truth could be silent. There are four situations described in the play. Each of them (lying face down in the grass, in supermarket, on a mound in Croker’s Acre and at court) is connected with specific experience that makes this woman begin to talk. This event takes place in April. Probably this time of the year has some special meaning to the woman. The woman has spent a lot of time in researching the reasons of her life circumstances. She has found that her paralyzing disease may be God’s punishment for her actions. However, she underlines that she does not feel any pain and does not suffer from this disease. Nevertheless, she notices that there are no grounds to be punished so severe. Moreover, she agrees that God does not need any grounds for such kind of actions. She feels the power that leads her over her life, and she actually believes that she needs to say something very important. She is not able to say exactly what she is going to say, but points out that long lasting research may give the answer to the question of her guilty and God’s punishment. Woman has a specific light in her head, which interrupts her thoughts and becomes more intensive. This character of the presentation of ideas is rather common in Beckett’s works. His works demonstrate similar techniques in the expression of the main idea through the entire play. It is interesting to reflect on the idea of the play title. Actually, it comes from the attitude of the woman to the events in her life. She always underlines that everything in the surrounding happens not to her. The Mouth has the central position in the play. All the attention of the audience is concentrated on it. The main aim of the author is to play on nerves of the audience, but not to influence intellectual activity. The woman, described in the play, does not seem to be a concrete personage. It is more likely to speak about the image of hundreds of similar women with close destinies and stories. It is appropriate to view any woman of certain period of time. Needless to say, she is just a part of the stage, and the main part is plaid by the Mouth. Beckett underlines that the Mouth should play role of the organ of emission without intellect. That is why it serves for the transition of the information. What is more, the visual image of the Mouth was proposed by The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist. There is one more actor of this play that we need to pay extra attention. We are speaking about the Auditor. Usually, this role is played by the male. However, there are no any directions of the author concerning the gender of the Auditor. Usually, you may notice him at the left side of the stage. Beckett has faced certain problems with place that would be excellent for this actor. Later, the author allows the actor to determine suitable place on the stage up to his own opinion. Undoubtedly, the concrete situation needs the specific character of the play. Its role is determined to every new play that is performed for the audience. Beckett notices that the position of the Auditor is rather difficult to determine because of the light and shadow balance. Moreover, he underlines that play needs this character, but he could make it even without the Auditor. The function of this character has never seemed effective to Beckett. In case of any mistakes in interpretation of this character, Beckett used to speak about an error of the creative imagination. It is worth to underline that actual image of the Auditor is used for the play Not I to point out the necessity of the intense listener. This is the figure that needs to underline the plot of the story and share it with the audience. This image is rather often used in the art of that period. Moreover, the position of the Auditor is not absolutely clear, his role is abstract. Furthermore, even Beckett does not give the correct answer to the question concerning the Auditor. That is why we could consider him to be either guardian angel or the angel of death. This play has several significant productions. One of them we are going to discuss in this essay. We need to compare the vision of Beckett on the plot of the story with the vision of Neil Jordan, who created one of the most well-known productions of this play in 2000. Moreover, it is not just the production; it is a movie created, on the ground of the story mentioned above. Nail Jordan was the director of this film produced by Blue Angel Films. That is actually a unique film- based installation that was created under the control of Neil Jordan, with the participation of one of the most popular American actresses Julianne Moore. One point of view in its favour is that the main idea stays without changes, and that is why we can see similar picture of the action in the film. We could notice the actress sitting on the stage, and only her mouth is visible for the audience. The mouth plays the main role in this action. Therefore, we here a long lasting monologue, delivered by the mouth. This monologue seems to be the powerful stream of ideas and consciousness, experienced by the actress. The whole atmosphere of the play is taken into account by Jordan. That is the reason of the presence of the mouth in the total darkness of the stage. This scene could be rather terrifying, if taking into account the manner of thoughts interpretation of the mouth. Neil Jordan filmed his interpretation of the play of Beckett, and it is about thirteen minutes long. The main action is based on the paying attention to the mouth from different sides and angles, in order to get the feeling of total presence. This gives the audience more powerful connection to the situation that takes place in the installation of the play. However, Jordan has individual vision of the play presented by Beckett. He understands the unique idea and character of the play, and he considers presenting his version into a multi screen installation. Moreover, the mouth is seen on six screens that are arranged in a particular manner to surround the audience. To maximize the influence from the experienced emotions, Jordan considers using specifically large screens for his installation. We need to underline, that Not I is regarded as the part of one unique project- Beckett on Film. The idea of this project belongs to Michael Colgan (Director of the Gate Theater). At this theatre, 19 plays of Beckett are transferred to films in the period of 2000-2001. It should be mentioned that each film has different director, according to the demands on concrete play to the view of the plot and way of interpretation. Beckett is not easy to please person. However, the play we are speaking about is directed by Neil Jordan, whose concept seemed to be interesting to Beckett. There are several differences in interpretation of the story, but the plot stays without changes. Moreover, Not I, directed by Neil Jordan, has been donated to IMMA in 2001. It is important to notice that Neil Jordan begins his career as a writer. Years pass before he understands that he should connect his life with film industry and present his own vision on different pieces of art. He begins his career with the role of creative consultant in film Excalibur, by John Boorman in 1981. One year later, Jordan writes and directs his first feature film Angel. This is the begging of his career in film industry. Thus, he directs and produces more than fifteen films during his career. We need to underline that his films have been honored with different awards all over the world. We could name Oscar, Golden Globes, A Golden Lion and Silver Bear among them. His career is considered to be significant for the entire film industry and art development. Moreover, he has been awarded five honorary doctorates for his activity in this direction of film development. We have analyzed the experience of Neil Jordan in production and direction of films; and this gives us the understanding of the value of his vision of the play Not I. We consider his point of view as a bit widespread and philosophical. Nevertheless, he has used certain tools to influence minds of the audience. However, Not I has been created to play on nerves of the audience, but not to influence their intellectual development. The comments on the installation are rather different; thus, different people experience different kinds of emotions, connected with the actions and the story itself that is presented by Jordan. However, Not I is considered to be theatrical monologue, created by Beckett in the late period of his professional activity. This is the piece of art that is completed due to minimalism and attention to the main plot of the story. This makes the audience being concentrated on the main idea. This is done to achieve maximum feelings of the audience that are directed on the scene of the play. As it has been already mentioned, the stage consists of the only light that brightens the scene. However, this light serves to illuminate one visible object- mouth of the woman that tells us the story of her life. In Jordan’s production of this play the monologue of woman lasts about fifteen minute, and it seems to be the stream of variable thoughts that need to be announced to the audience. In addition, we remember that this woman is not able to speak from her early childhood. Thus, if we hear her monologue we make a conclusion that strong emotions have caused her ability to speak in the play and interpret her ideas into the words. However, Jordan does not change the text of the play at all. He has changed only the presentation of this text. His experiments concern the demonstration of the scene with rather interesting concept. Thus, the monologue is presented from six different angles that are screened in specific form of a novel set up. When the play Not I is viewed as an artwork not in comparison with the original play we should speak about specific presentation of the action in the film. Jordan makes a dynamic presentation that shows the dramatic story of the woman in a new concrete light. There are plenty of comments and critics on this play and its film installation. All of them are rather different. It is not surprising, because so many man so many minds. However, the existence of the reaction of audience on the play speaks about its value as a piece of art. Moreover, it has an influence on the minds and emotions of the audience. It is difficult to explain the main idea in fifteen minutes of monologue. However, Beckett succeeds in this process perfectly. The task to present the main idea of the play without action is not an easy one. We know that in play Not I the main role is played by the mouth of the woman. Therefore, we do not see the play we are used to imagine while thinking about it. Critics notice that the presentation might be more clear and easy for understanding. Although, if you watch the film, you will understand that there is no need to change anything. The main idea is presented in rather specific way, but in this case, it works and gives the required result. The maximum attention of the audience is paid to the only light on the scene and the movement of lips of the woman. Moreover, to have an extra feeling of presence in the story, the author gives us the opportunity to listen to comments, made up by the voice from the outside. The Audition’s role is still not absolutely clear for the audience of the play. Even Beckett prefers to keep silence about his main part and sense in this play. Even though, every person is given a unique opportunity to figure out whether the Auditor is a guardian angel or an angel of death. Hence, we can speak about the usage of personal imagination while deciding such widely argued aspects of the play. In conclusion, we need to underline that the author of the play Samuel Beckett has described this play as the action of the moving mouth in the darkness of the rest of the stage. This is one of the specific and most significant visual elements of the play. This play is supposed to be the part of art of the author that is connected with the late period of his activity. Not I is a short dramatic monologue, and its premiere takes place at the â€Å"Samuel Beckett Festival† by the Repertory Theater in New York. First time this play was directed by Alan Schneider. The action of the Not I takes place in a specific place that is lighted only by a single light. This light concentrates on the mouth of the actress on almost eight feet above the stage. Other elements of the play are presented in the dark space of stage. One could notice the figure of the Auditor. Mouth tells us a story, presented by the huge amount of different sentences announced in a rather fast pace. We find out that the woman of about seventy years old is left by her parents after birth. This is the reason of the absence of love and understanding in her life. This woman has been virtually mute from the early years of her life. Sometimes, the occasional progress happens. One of such situations is demonstrated by Beckett to illustrate the main sense of the play. As it was previously mentioned, this play has several significant productions. We have compared the vision of Beckett on the plot of the story with the vision of Neil Jordan, who has created one of the most well-known film productions of this play in 2000. Moreover, the movie has been created on the ground of the story mentioned above. Nail Jordan is the director of this film, produced by Blue Angel Films. This is, actually, a unique film, based installation that is created under the control of Neil Jordan with the participation of one of the most popular American actresses Julianne Moore. In Jordan’s production of this play the monologue of woman lasts about fifteen minute, and it seems to be the stream of variable thoughts that need to be announced to the audience, in order to help people to understand her story and feel strong emotions of her experience. Jordan does not change the text of the play at all. He has changed only the presentation of this text. His experiments concern the demonstration of the scene with rather interesting concept. Thus, the monologue is presented from six different angles that are screened in specific form of a novel set up. All things considered, the film Not I is viewed as an artwork with its specific presentation of the action, in comparison with the original play. Needless to say, Jordan has made a dynamic presentation that shows the dramatic story of the woman in a new concrete light. What is more, every person is given a unique opportunity to figure out whether the Auditor is a guardian angel or an angel of death. Hence, we could speak about the usage of personal imagination while deciding such widely argued aspects of the play.

Tula de Hidalgo (Mexico) Toltec Capital City of Tollan

Tula de Hidalgo (Mexico) Toltec Capital City of Tollan The archaeological ruins of Tula (known as Tula de Hidalgo or Tula de Allende) are located in the southwestern part of the Mexican state of Hildalgo about 70 kilometers (45 miles) northwest of Mexico City. The site is located within the alluvial bottoms and adjacent uplands of the Tula and Rosas Rivers, and it lies partially buried beneath the modern town of Tula de Allende. Based on extensive ethnohistorical research by Wigberto Jimenez-Moreno and archaeological investigations by Jorge Acosta, Tula is considered the likely candidate for Tollan, the legendary capital of the Toltec Empire between the 10th and 12th centuries AD. In addition, Tulas construction bridges the Classic and Postclassic periods in Mesoamerica, during the period when the power of Teotihuacan and the southern Maya lowlands were fading, to be replaced by political alliances, trade routes and art styles at Tula, and at Xochicalco, Cacaxtla, Cholula and Chichà ©n Itz. Chronology Tollan/Tula was established during the Epiclassic period, about 750 AD as a fairly small town (ca 3-5 square kilometers or 1.2-1.5 square miles), as the Teotihuacan empire was crumbling. Colonial (after 1550 AD)Late Postclassic (1230-1550 AD)Early Postclassic (900-1230)Epiclassic (750-900) During the height of Tulas power, between AD 900 and 1100, the city included an area of some 13 sq km (5 sq mi), with an estimated population perhaps as high as 60,000. Tulas architecture was set in a large diversity of environments, from a reedy marsh to adjacent hills and slopes; within this varied landscape are hundreds of mounds and terraces, representing residential structures in a planned city scape, with alleys, passageways and paved streets. The heart of Tula was its civic-ceremonial district, called the Sacred Precinct, a large open quadrangular plaza surrounded by two L-shaped buildings, as well as Pyramid C, Pyramid B and the Quemado Palace. The Quemado Palace has three large rooms, sculpted benches, columns and pilasters. Tula is justly famed for its art, including two interesting friezes worth discussing in detail: the Coatepantli Frieze and the Vestibule Frieze. Coatepantli Frieze The Coatepantli Frieze (Mural of the Serpents) is the best known piece of art work at Tula, believed to date to the early Postclassic period. It is a carved into a 2.2 meter (7.5 foot) high free-standing wall running for 40 m (130 ft) along the north side of Pyramid B. The wall seems to channel and restrict pedestrian traffic on the north side, creating a narrow enclosed passageway. It was named coatepantli, which is the Aztec (Nahuatl) word for serpent, by excavator Jorge Acosta. The Coateplantli Friese was made from slabs of local sedimentary stone carved in relief and brightly painted. Some of the slabs were borrowed from other monuments. The frieze is capped by a row of spiral-shaped merlons; and its facade shows several reclining human skeletons intertwined with serpents. Some scholars have interpreted this as a representation of the feathered serpent in pan-Mesoamerican mythology, called Quetzalcoatl; others point to the Classic Maya Vision Serpent. (see Jordan for some interesting discussion). The Frieze of the Caciques (a.k.a. the Vestibule frieze) The Vestibule Frieze, while lesser known than that of the Coateplantli, is no lest interesting. It is a carved, stuccoed and brightly painted frieze that illustrates a line of ornately dressed men walking in a procession, located on the interior walls of Vestibule 1. Vestibule 1 itself is an L-shaped colonnaded hall that links Pyramid B with the main plaza. The hallway had a sunken patio and two hearths, and 48 square pillars supported a roof. The frieze is on a nearly square bench, measuring 94 centimeters (37 inches) high by 108 cm (42 in) wide in the northwest corner of Vestibule 1. The frieze itself is 50 cm x 8.2 m (19.7 in x 27 ft). The 19 men shown in the frieze have been interpreted at various times as local chiefs (caciques), priests or warriors, but based on the architectural setting, composition, costumes and color, these figures represent merchants, people who were engaged in long-distance trade. Sixteen of the 19 figures carry staffs, one appears to wear a backpack, and one carries a fan, all elements associated with travelers (see Kristan-Graham for more). Sources This article is a part of the About.com guide to the Toltec Civilization, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Castillo Bernal S. 2015. El Anciano Alado del Edificio K de Tula, Hidalgo. Latin American Antiquity 26(1):49-63. Healan DM, Kerley JM, and Bey GJ. 1983. Excavation and Preliminary Analysis of an Obsidian Workshop in Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico. Journal of Field Archaeology 10(2):127-145. Jordan K. 2013. Serpents, skeletons, and ancestors?: the Tula Coatepantli revisited. Ancient Mesoamerica 24(02):243-274. Kristan-Graham C. 1993. The Business of Narrative at Tula: An Analysis of the Vestibule Frieze, Trade, and Ritual. Latin American Antiquity 4(1):3-21. Ringle WM, Gallareta Negron T, and Bey GJ. 1998. The return of Quetzalcoatl: Evidence for the spread of a world religion during the Epiclassic period. Ancient Mesoamerica 9:183-232. Stocker T, Jackson B, and Riffell H. 1986. Wheeled figurines from Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico. Mexicon 8(4):69-73. Stocker TL, and Spence MW. 1973. Trilobal Eccentrics at Teotihuacan and Tula. American Antiquity 38(2):195-199.